Martin Luther King Essay Example for Free

Martin Luther King EssayThe history of this two bulky work force dates back to the 1920s when both of them were born (Malcolm x -19th whitethorn 1925, King Luther-15th Jan 1929). Their fame, fulfillment of dreams and settle was however, felt in the 1960s. Although, brought up at different capacities their history and influence has lots of connaturality. Their remarkable contribution was almost at the alike(p) period of time(between 1957-1968). This is such a time when there was a lot of radical debate on racism in America in terms of the right hands of both the foreboding(a)s and whites. Such a debate was due to the different priorities given to the two races in America. For example the blacks were not on the wholeowed to vote thus, need for ingrained amendment which Martin King Luther advocated for(Howard pp 8). There was also an aspect of inequality in the sense that black American schools could not offer chances for career advancement and the blacks lacked proper hosp ital facilities as in the story of Malcolm X. He highlights in his bibliography that his desire to be a lawyer could not be achieved in the Negro school he attended thus killing his dream and determination to continue schooling.The inequality is also seen in the reason for the boycott of the Montgomery bus system (where blacks were to bed at the back sits of the bus while front seats were reserved for the whites) organized by Martin King Luther (Luthers bibliography). The two men spearheaded very critical campaigns on their different believes on the position of all the Americans in political, economical and social standards. Their approaches were quite different although they both had remarkable speeches and quotations pulling a large displace of followers to themselves. Martin Luther King was born of a Baptist minister and his m some other was a school teacher.He attended school to a post graduate attaining a PhD in systematic theology in Boston. He later became a clergy humankin d in the Baptist church. His early life before getting into politics was that of a preacher living upright according to the moral standards of the society. It is during his ministration work that he discovered that, though his faith talks of all men been equal, with selfsame(prenominal) need for respect accorded to them this was not so in America because the whites here were treated with a higher esteem than the blacks. He sort to dig bass into the history of the two races and thus, got the determination to difference of opinion for equality in the two races.He also got some inspiration from Mahatma Gandhi of India who had conduct his country to independence from the British rule. It is from Gandhi that he adopted the idea of non ruby-red protests. His approach was non violent though with different touch to various article of faiths for example he used the non partisan principle when he refused to en dose for whatever particular candidate in presidential run up. (Howard pp 57 ). It is through ecumenism that he brought people together in his civil movement activities. He also incorporated mass protest, mobilization of bus boycotts and enlightenment through speeches.The boycotts lasted for 382 days leading to bombing of his house and his imprisonment. In prison he resorted into writing. He wrote letters and this advanced to five books namely The measure of a man, Strength to love, Stride towards freedom, Trumpet of conscience and why we toss wait. From jail Martin Luther King founded the Southern Christians Leaders Congress from which he could carry out his civil reform protest and the Student Non violent Coordinating military commission to help black students from violent protests but this was to no avail as the students turned his ideas down posing a great challenge to his campaigns.He was reliable the Nobel peace price in 1964 as the youngest person to this award at an age of 35. His campaigns were successful because in 1965 the US congress passes a voting right act so that the blacks could directly be allowed to vote. He also managed to prevent violent attacks by the blacks who had lost their children when their church was attacked by some whites through a great expressive and advisory e urology familiarizeed at the burial ceremony but it is his speech I cod a dream that halt accorded him more fame.This speech was delivered at Washington DC where he had an audience of 250 000 people (Bennet pp64). Among his successes was the award of the man of the year as the first black to this human activity by the Time magazine of America. The civil right movement which he founded go on but pressure by the youth to engage in violent campaigns against discrimination led him to a new turn in his career and life yet again, where he now turned to protest against mendicancy and war.He greatly complained against Vietnam war and in the process of organizing a march in protest of the problems that poor garbage collectors in Memphis, Tennes see were undergoing, he was assassinated. This was in April 1968. Although dead his great words are echoed to date. His works are also remembered by many as the man behind the civil rights and reforms in America. Malcolm X on the other side was a son to an outspoken Baptist minister who followed a Black Nationalist leader called Marcus Garvey. His mother was a house wife.He went to school up to secondary level and later dropped as he could not see possibilities of achieving his dreams as a black. His father was found dead and the neighbors thought this was a jut by the whites to silence the blacks. This was quite early as Malcolm was only six and it led the family to poverty hence the mother got mental breakdown and was sent to an psychiatric hospital for 26 years. (Lomax pp 12). Malcolm together with his brothers was taken to foster homes. This got him into petty crimes like gambling and burglary later moved to New York and advanced his criminal life to prostitution and convey o f drugs.He was later arrested during which he converted to Islam from the influence of his brother who used to visit him. This was demonstrated by transmute of his name from Malcolm little to Malcolm X, because he now believed Little was a slavery name. In prison he also joined some classes to continue with his schooling which he had stopped in in the first place years this was a great boost to his later belles-lettres and speeches although he was not a professional in any particular field. When released from jail he was now a reformed man and so he joined the Nation of Islam and became oneness of the leaders.Here he advocated for the teachings learn t from jail which include a believe that evil men would face the wrath of Allah, blacks should get a stylus from the lifestyle of the whites both in financial conditions, social integration, their structure of leadership, their way of thinking and in the art of worship. As a religious leader he built up mosques at Pennsylvania and P hiladelphia where he had captured a capacious following. There were some disagreements with the main leader of the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X due to the statement he made following the character assassination of President John F.Kennedy (saw the assassination as a case of the chicken coming home to roost) and so was accorded a 90 day suspension with orders to remain silent without presenting any speeches. (Lomax pp 32). He found this slightly unbearable and although some people argue that he had some misunderstandings with the leader of Nation of Islam, over his conduct and moral uprightness, one thing was clear it was time for Malcolm to call it quits. He then formed his own Muslim Mosque Inc. His idea of racial segregation was not to coexist peacefully with King Luthers idea of constitutional amendment peaceful intermingled living.He did not want any mixing of the blacks and whites at any degree so his solution was that blacks have their own state even if through war. His foll owers were to use armed self defense against violence from the whites. He also criticized Christianity as a trust that copied the whites way of life thus due to poverty, the blacks ended up in crime in attempt to imitate this lifestyles. It is during this time that he went on transit to Mecca and got some inspiration from other cultures changing his focus from the black Muslims to all races and religions.His ideology on all whites as bad people responsible for all the misery that the blacks faced was also changed and now considered the whites as individuals with personal opinions rather than stereotyping them to a bunch of demons. Claiming to have found the more and profound truths about Islam as a religion and lifestyle, Malcolm changed his name yet again to El Hajj El Shabazz. His mission was not left out in this wave of change as now he considered in cooperating all blacks despite their religion affiliation in his founded Organization of Afro-American Unity.Its through this or ganization that he led the first ever greatest black American rally. Malcolm now set out to discussion with groups belonging to the whites and wanted to present the grievances of the black Americans in the US to UN. He also urged his followers to register in for voting process and sort for a change in the management of public facilities within the black communities from the whites who dominated every field of management and administration, to be done by the blacks.His charismatic speeches and influence was mainly through media (he had a program covered on the television and in the radio and wrote articles to be published in the dailies). His debates seamed to be outrightly remarkable giving a very strong essence of what he believed in, thus captured very large number of audience. Malcolm X was assassinated in February1965 at New York as he was addressing a rally. He left a very significant contribution to black power movements as the Nation of Islam, the Muslim Mosque Inc and the Or ganization of Afro-American still went on in the believes he had taught them.His believes got more momentum afterward his autobiography was published in 1965. (Howard pp116). The Malcolm X societies is a product of what he established. Similarities among this two men start from their birth to their death. This is because the blacks had equally similar lifestyles and opportunities as they were the marginalized group in America. Both of them were born in the same year and their impact was felt within the same period of time. They had equally same faith in their upbringing as their fathers were ministers in the Baptist church.They had a first hand experience of the brutality of the whites as their homes were burnt, underwent imprisonment and finally were assassinated. The two men changed their names at one point of their lives (Martins name was changed while he was still young from his previous name Michael to his current name Martin). Their lives took different phases changing from s chool life to religious leaders to politics and finally to human right activist. The pulpit was used as a way to spread their beliefs and influence the community.In both incidences, there was some inspiration from communities outside America which marked the start of a new phase of their lives. Both of them spoke strongly against racial discrimination. Their speeches and charisma has also lived long after their death and they all died through assassination in the 1960s. They equally had a large crowd of followers. Their writings are considered inspirational and great by both the black and white Americans. In the last phase of their lives and career, they had a great focus on poverty and empowerment of the blacks.The differences between this two individuals is not much they basically had almost the same kind of background and they all fought for discrimination on the lines of race. Martins way of fighting was non violent but Malcolms way was by use of armed defense and rejecting co operation to the whites ideas. The King got into his fathers line of career and maintained his religion while Malcolm diverted into Islam. though both of them were charismatic and great speakers Malcolm had a lower level of education.Luther led a straight life all along but Malcolm was once knobbed in crime before his reform and conversion to Islam. King Luthers tool of communication was mainly his pulpit, crusades and campaign meetings unlike Malcolms which involved the media. Martin Luther was accorded the international award of the Nobel heartsease Price and the man of the year title in the times magazine while Malcolm only got recognition with no award except for the blacks having some societies named after him. Martins campaigns of non violent protests were met with criticisms from fellow blacks unlike Malcolms.It is out of this two figures that others like Nelson Mandela of South Africa and Martin Luther King Junior, have found a base to stand on and fight against discriminat ion of whatever form. The world today remembers this two dear people as heroes (especially America). They made a remarkable spirit toward racial segregation which has continued up to today. Their stand as spiritual leaders on what they believed is an example to be followed by most leaders today who see lawfully practices and banish from condemning them.Work Cited Bennet Lerone Jn, What manner of man a biography of Martin Luther King Chicago Johnson publishers (1964). pp 5-112 Brief History with Documents. ISBN 0312395051, 9780312395056 Bedford/SMartins 2004 Lomax Louise, To kill a black man Los Angels , CAHollooway House Publishing Company (1968) pp 12-86 Man of the year Time 1983 (January 3, 1964). pp 13-16 25-27. Pitney,Howard and David Martin Luther King , Malcolm X and the Civil Rights Struggle of the 1950s and 1960s. (1978) 8-122 Russel Adam, Great Negroes Past and presentChicago. Afro-american publishers. (1963)pp 64-246. Russel Adam, Great Negroes Past and presentChicago. A fro-american publishers. (1963)pp 64-246.

Post-Civil War Urbanization Pros and Cons Essay Example for Free

Post-Civil War Urbanization Pros and Cons EssayThe Post-Civil War era of urbanization in the unify States created a image of improvements and positive results that outweighed the negative aspects of the time. The country witnessed an increase in community, a better public school system, and increase social reform movements. During urbanization, the population of the United States rose. In 1860, none of the Statess cities had a million citizens but by 1890, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia all had more than one million inhabitants. With a population of approximately 3. 5 million people, New York became the second largest city in the world. A wave of immigration from Europe contributed to the increase in population. These New Immigrants came from eastern European res publicas such as Italy, Greece, and Poland. The increase in population allowed for the increase in other sections of society. As the population increased, the need for education also rose. The number of public high schools in America grew between the 1880s and the 1890s. The idea that a free government could not function successfully with uneducated and insensible people became more widely accepted.Colleges became increasingly necessary and schools designed for training teachers expanded. Education was greatly helped by the Morrill Act of 1862 which granted public lands to the states for support of education, more of which became state universities. Urbanization and the population boom allowed for education to greatly increase. The problems surrounding the immigrant and working class helped awaken a new social reform movement. Jane Adams was a college-educated reformer against war and poverty. In 1889, she established the Hull House as a settlement house to help immigrants.More settlement houses were established and use as centers for activism and social reform. In 1893, the Hull House successfully lobbied for an Illinois anti-sweatshop law to protect women workers and prohibit child l abor. Urbanization after the Civil War helped to reawaken the Social Reform movements in America. Urbanization helped the United States of America rebound after the Civil War. The Population boom, growing education, and social reforms were all beneficial results that changed the nation.though there were some negative aspects of urbanization, the good results outweighed the bad. Kaitlyn Lucas Ms. Rizzo AP United States History B February 10, 2014 Urbanization Cons The post-Civil War age of urbanization had terrible effects on the nation as a whole. The good aspects of urbanization were not worth the bad aspects that accompanied them. The United States of America faced new problems. Urbanization led to defilement and waste production, and a disturbance in rural America. People who lived in the country produced very little waste.They used and renewed the resources at their disposal. Once urbanization began to pick up and new businesses such as Sears began to package things in throwaway bottles, boxes, bags, and cans, getting rid of waste became a problem. Pollution became a palpable problem in cities and sanitary facilities could not keep up with the waste produced by the booming population. The cities were filled with a permanent stench due to bastardized water, uncollected garbage, unwashed bodies, and animal droppings. Urbanization removed and replaced many jobs, particularly those in agriculture.Farmers were drawn from their fields and moved to cities to work in factories. Rural America was declining and giving way to the rise of urban America. Local general stores were replaced by large chain department stores such as Macys. The era of urbanization increased the division between classes. The Wealthy lived in suburban mansions and the poor lived in dirty slums, many struggling to survive. Urbanization created mass waste production, and the decline in rural America. Any good that came out of post-Civil War urbanization, was overshadowed by the negative aspec ts of the time period.

The Shaping of Character of Pecola Through Her Family and Her Society Essay Example for Free

The Shaping of Character of Pecola Through Her Family and Her Society EssayThe Bluest eye is the represent of Toni Morrison. In this unfermented we can put up that there are many characters that are genuinely interesting to analyze it. Because the characters are very characteristic. We can see at the main character of the coloredst eyes, Pecola. Pecola has mental problem that is very interesting to analyze. So in here I want to analyze the character of Pecola that is influence from her family and her society. In here the big question for analyze the changing of Pecolas character What make Pecola want to drop raunchy eyes and get it until she seems crackers?And for this question, I use close reading and depth psychology for greet ab proscribed the changing of Pecolas Character and what the psychology problem in herself. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis studies the often times skewed ways in which the mind expresses haveings. Those feelings range from anxiety and fear to hostility and sexual desire, and they can originate in a range of sources, from the traumas of personal history to the instincts of the body. Psychoanalysis is also concerned with the dynamics of interpersonal relations with the way the self is formed through interactions with its familial and sociocultural environment.Depending on the school of psychoanalysis one heeds, the study of minds operation in literature should be concerned either with the unconscious and the instincts or with the family, personal history, and the social world that shapes the self. Several reading strategies emerge from these psychoanalytic theories. A text might be read for the way unconscious substantive manifests itself through indirect means- images or descriptions that evoke psychological issues. The relation between characters might be studied for what they disclose almost family dynamics and the way such dynamics shape selves.A psychoanalysis reading might also attend to such themes or issues as separation, loss, boundaries, fusion with others, and the struggle to form a coherent and functioning self out a damaging context or traumatic personal history. Finally, language itself can be studied as a means of instantiating unconscious processes and working through some of the issues an emerging self faces as it struggles for adult existence or as it seeks to come to term with disturbing unconscious material. Pecola, her family and her society Pecola is a girl who el nonetheless years old.Her paternity is Cholly Breedlove and her mother is Pauline Breedlove and her brother is Sammy. They are a poor family. In the beginning story have been described they have ugliness and describing of their ugliness is very clear. Mrs. Breedlove, Sammy Breedlove, and Pecola Breedlovewore their ugliness, put it on, so to speak, although it did not belong to them. The eyes, the small eyes narrow closely together under narrow foreheads. The low, irregular hairlines, which seemed even more irreg ular in contrast to the straight, heavy eyebrows which nearly met. Keen but curve noses, with insolent nostrils.They had high cheekbones, and their ears turned forward. Shapely lips which called attention not to themselves but to the rest of the face. You looked at them and wondered why they were so horrifying you looked closely and could not invite the source. (Morrison 30) Pauline has bad character. She is a mother but she does not like a mother. Even she is more love to her boss girl than her daughter. She feels disgusted to her daughter. She does her daughter like Pecola is not her daughter. She always treat Pecola and through ill treatment makes Pecola abominate herself. Cholly, he is worst father.He is a drinker and he loathe her daughter, Pecola. Even he rape Pecola. You can imagine that if there is a father rape her daughter? It shows to us he is worst father in the world. There are some characters that effect Pecolas character. There are Frieda and Claudia who always love and keep Pecola from enable dangerous from their society. For example when Bay Boy, Woodrow Cain, buddy Wilson, Junie Bug tried to mock Pecola, Frieda actually helped Pecola and do the black boys go absent from them. Since that menstruation Pecola was in Claudias house because she had no house.Frieda and Claudia are very kind to her. They always p countersink together. At one moment, when Frieda, Claudia and Pecola discussed about what they must do. The first proposal from Frieda to Pecola was go to Mr. Henrys house to see girlie magazine. all of a sudden in middle their discussion, blood was running down in her legs. Claudia was very panic and Frieda suddenly knew what they have to do. Frieda said, Oh. Lordy I know. I know what that is What? Pecolas fingers went to her mouth.Thats ministratin. Whats that? You know. Am I going to die? she asked. Noooo. You wont die. It just means you can have a baby (21) And her mother came and helped Frieda that is helping Pecola. Af ter that go past, in the night they lay down in the bed and Frieda and Claudia awe and respect to Pecola because it means that Pecola is now grown up. There is a question from Pecola Is it true that I can have a baby now? and that question was answered by Frieda and said that sure. And Pecola asked again to Frieda buthow? and Oh, said Frieda, somebody has to love you. . and Pecola asked again How do you do that?I mean, how do you get somebody to love you? but that question was not answered by Frieda because she had been asleep. Somebody has to love you? Somebody has to love you. That is the answer for Pecola where when the matureness that is signed by menstruation and based on the answer of Frieda how Pecola can have a baby. I think that statement somebody has to love you make Pecola think about how the way someone loves her. But the fact, there is no one love her include her family. That evidences are her mother didnt like her, her father and her friends too.They hate her ver y much because of her ugliness. From at that time she perspective to how the way somebody loves her and actually she has no her own standard of beauty based the standard of beauty generally in America. That is has white skin and has blue eyes. Her mind has been suggested by that standard of beauty. So she wants to have a coupling of blue eyes. If she had a pair of blue eyes and can fulfill the standard of beauty, theres somebody love her. But actually and true fact she did not have blue eyes and cant fulfill the standard of beauty.Contrast to Pecolas longing who want to fulfill the standard of beauty and everyone loves her. She even accept cruel treatment form her society especially from her family. Like I said before, her father and her mother did not like her very much. single day, when Frieda and Claudia visited to Pecolas house, there is something happen that make Pauline was very anger. Mrs. Breedlove yanked her up by the arm, slapped her again, and in a voice thin with ang er, abused Pecola directly and Frieda and me by implication. Crazy fool my floor, mess look what you ork get on out now out crazy my floor, my floor my floor. Her words were hotter and darker than the smoking berries, and we backed away in dread. The little girl in pink started to cry. Mrs. Breedlove turned to her. Hush baby, hush. Come here. Oh, Lord, look at your dress. Dont cry no more. Polly will change it. (85) That borned out that Pauline did not love Pecola very much and she prefer that baby than her daughter, Pecola. Her father is very cruel. He raped her own daughter and this made Pecola judgment that her life is very bad and make her frustration.She thought that if she had a white skin and beautiful girl maybe her mother and her father did not do bad thing to her. So do her friends. Her friends did bad thing to Pecola too. She was ever mocked by black boys (Bay Boy,Woodrow Cain, BuddyWilson, Junie Bug ), pitch-dark e mo. Black e mo. Yadaddsleepsnekked. Black e mo bla ck e mo ya dadd sleeps nekked. Black e mo and Maureen did too I am cute And you ugly Black and ugly black e mos. I am cute . Everything her friends and her family did to Pecola made Pecola hated herself. Her face was very ugly and her body was black skin.The ugliness from herself have made her think about herself. One day, she has ever seen in front of the mirror and thought that she was really ugly and everyone did not want she is there. Long hours she sit down tone in the mirror, trying to discover the secret of the ugliness, the ugliness that made her ignored or despised at school, by teachers and classmates alike. She was the only member of her class who sat alone at a double desk. The first letter of her last name forced her to sit in the front of the room always. But what about Marie Appolonaire? Marie was in front of her, but she shared a desk with Luke Angelino.Her teachers had always treated her this way. They tried never to glance at her, and called on her only when ev eryone was required to respond. (Morrison, 37) She thought that how beautiful she is if she has blue eyes. Yeah she wanted to have blue eyes. So their friend like and love her and did not something make her be anger and hate at herself. Why, look at pretty-eyed Pecola. We mustnt do bad things in front of those pretty eyes. Pretty eyes. Pretty blue eyes. Big blue pretty eyes. Run, Jip, run. Jip runs, Alice runs. Alice has blue eyes. Jerry has blue eyes. Jerry runs. Alice runs.They run with their blue eyes. Four blue eyes. Four pretty blue eyes. Blue-sky eyes. (Morrison, 37) For reach her purpose to get blue eyes, she went to meet Soaphead who work in church. Do what for you? I cant go to school no more. And I thought maybe you could help me. Help you how? Tell me. Dont be frightened. My eyes. What about your eyes? I want them blue. (Morrison, 146) But Soaphead lies Pecola. He made something that did not make sense. He tried to lie with reaction of the dog. If the dog had strang e behavior, it meant that her purpose had been acceded.She had blue eyes. But the dog behaves strangely and made Pecola thought that she has had blue eyes. In the end, she seemed crazy because she always talk with her own self. She felt she have had a pair blue eyes. The bluest eyes she had than Alice and Jerry in storybooks, bluer than Joannas, bluer than Michelenas. pecola had the bluest eyes than her friends. Pecola and Psychological Problem Psychoanalysis discuss psychological problem in character. Character that loss identity and happen struggle at self to be interesting discussion in The Bluest Eyes novel. The main character is Pecola.In the beginning story theres no happen in Pecolas mind but after she always get ill treatment from her mother, her father and her friends, her character has changed. Her society makes herself change. Pecola does not thank to God upon her bodys condition. Even she hates herself and want to be the other that have blue eyes. Everything she has done include goes to Church to meet Soaphead that she hope can accede her dream want to have a pair of blue eyes. Unfortunately, she is just eleven years old girl and does not know that her condition cant change because that is nature form birth.Soaphead is easier to lie her and make her seem crazy because she feel she have had blue eyes and in the end story she seems talk to herself and proud to have blue eyes. How sad she is. The Bluest Eye portrays in poignant terms the tragic condition of the blacks in racial America. It examines how the ideologies perpetuated by the dominant groups and adopted by the marginalgroups influence the identity of the black women. Bombarded by image of white beauty, Morrisons characters lose themselves to selfhatred and their only aim in life is to be white.They try to erase their heritage, and eventually like Pecola Breedlove, the protagonist,who yearns for blue eyes, have no recourse except madness. (Bharati, Joshi, 39) Conclusion The bluest eyes is a novel that tell about the tragic condition of the black in racist America. Pecola that have black skin and does not fulfill the standard of beauty feel suffer and do everything to do fulfill that standard although in the end of the story she seems crazy because she has hallucination have a pair of bluest eyes. It show psychological problem at herself. Her family and her society that make her become to want the standard of beauty.

Examining The Concept Of Hindu Law Religion Essay

Examining The Concept Of Hindi Law Religion EssayThe phrase source of justice has some(prenominal) con nonations. It may be the authority which issues forms of shed which ar recognized by Courts as binding. In this context, source of constabulary means the maker of law. It may mean the social conditions which inspires the making of law for the political science of the conditions. In this context it means cause of law. It may also mean in its literal sense the material from which the rules and laws ar kn profess. In this sense the facial gesture means the evidence of law and it is in this sense that the expression source of law is accepted in Jurisprudence.Vijnaneshwar (commentator on the Yajnavalkya Smriti and fo infra of Mitakshara School) has c everyed it Jnapak Hetu i.e., the means of knowing law. It is strategic to study the sources of law because in every personal legal administration unless that rule is law which has place in its sources. A rule not situated dow n or not recognized in the sources is not a rule in that legal system.The newsworthiness Hindi first appeared in theOld Persianlanguage which was derived from theSanskritwordSindhu, the historic local designation for theIndus Riverin the north-western part of theIndian subcontinent. A Hindu is an adherent of Hinduism.Hindu law is a set of personal laws governing the social conditions of Hindus (such as marriage and divorce, adoption, inheritance, minority and guardianship, family matters, etc.). It is not Hindus al ace who must follow Hindu law exclusively there are several opposite communities and religious denominations that are subject to its dominion such as Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, Brahmo-Samajists, Prarthana-Samajists, the Virashaivas and Lingayats and the Santhals of Chhota Nagpur besides others.In Sir Dinshah F.Mullas Principles of Hindu Law, the learned editor program has be Hindu law in the following words Wherever the laws of India admit operation of a personal law, the rights and obligations of a Hindu are find by Hindu law, i.e. his traditional law, virtuallytimes c bothed the law of his religion, subject to the exception that some(prenominal) part of that law may be modified or abrogated by statute. Law as understood by Hindus is a branch of dharma.Nature and scope In the article project, the scope will be restricted to finding out the sources of Hindu law, and critique on some of the definitional aspects of the sources and a general critique of the sources.Sources of Hindu LawThe sources of Hindu law can be sort out under the following two headsancient SourcesUnder this would come the followingShrutiSmritiDigests and Commentaries andCustom.Modern SourcesUnder this head would comeJustice, blondness and good consciencePrecedent, andLegislation.Ancient SourcesShruti-It literally means that which has been heard. The word is derived from the root shru which means to hear. In theory, it is the primary and paramount source of Hindu law and i s believed to be the language of the elysian revelation through the sages.The synonym of shruti is veda. It is derived from the root vid importee to know. The term Veda is based on the tradition that they are the repository of all knowledge. on that point are four Vedas namely, install Veda (containing hymns in Sanskrit to be recited by the chief priest), Yajurva Veda (containing formulas to be recited by the officiating priest), Sama Veda (containing verses to be chanted by seers) and Atharva Veda (containing a collection of spells and incantations, stories, predictions, apotropaic charms and some big hymns).Each Veda has three parts viz. Sanhita (which consists mainly of the hymns), Brahmin (tells us our duties and means of performing them) and Upanishad (containing the essence of these duties). The shrutis include the Vedas along with their components.Smritis-The word Smriti is derived from the root smri meaning to remember. Traditionally, Smritis contain those portions of th e Shrutis which the sages forgot in their original form and the idea whereby they wrote in their own language with the help of their memory. Thus, the basis of the Smritis is Shrutis provided they are human works.There are two kinds of Smritis viz. Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. Their subject matter is al around the said(prenominal). The difference is that the Dharmasutras are written in prose, in short maxims (Sutras) and the Dharmashastras are composed in meter (Shlokas). However, occasionally, we find Shlokas in Dharmasutras and Sutras in the Dharmashastras. In a narrow sense, the word Smriti is used to denote the poetical Dharmashastras.The number of Smriti writers is almost impossible to determine but some of the noted Smriti writers enumerated by Yajnavalkya (sage from Mithila and a major(ip) figure in the Upanishads) are Manu, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Yama, Katyayana, Brihaspati, Parashar, Vyas, Shankh, Daksha, Gautama, Shatatapa, Vasishtha, etc.The rules laid down in Smritis can be dissever into three categories viz. Achar (relating to morality), Vyavahar (signifying procedural and substantive rules which the King or the State applied for settling disputes in the adjudication of justice) and Prayaschit (signifying the penal provision for commission of a wrong).Digests and Commentaries- later on Shrutis came the era of commentators and digests. Commentaries (Tika or Bhashya) and Digests (Nibandhs) covered a period of more than thousand years from 7th century to 1800 A.D. In the first part of the period most of the commentaries were written on the Smritis but in the later period the works were in the nature of digests containing a synthesis of the various Smritis and explaining and reconciling the various contradictions.The growth of the different schools of Hindu law has been possible on account of the different commentaries that were written by various authorities. The original source of Hindu law was the same for all Hindus. But schoo ls of Hindu law arose as the people chose to adhere to one or the other school for different reasons. The Dayabhaga and Mitakshara are the two major schools of Hindu law. The Dayabhaga school of law is based on the commentaries of Jimutvahana (author of Dayabhaga which is the digest of all Codes) and the Mitakshara is based on the commentaries written by Vijnaneswar on the Code of Yajnavalkya.Custom-Custom is regarded as the third source of Hindu law. From the earliest period custom (achara) is regarded as the highest dharma. As defined by the Judicial Committee custom signifies a rule which in a particular family or in a particular class or district has from long usage obtained the force of law.Custom is a principle source and its position is next to the Shrutis and Smritis but usage of custom prevails over the Smritis. It is superior to written law. There are certain characteristics which need to be fulfilled for declaring custom to be a valid one. They are-The custom must be anci ent. The particular usage must have been practised for a long time and accepted by common consent as a governing rule of a particular ships company.The custom must be certain and should be free from each sort of ambiguity. It must also be free from technicalities.The custom must be reasonable and not against any live law. It must not be immoral or against any public policy andThe custom must have been continuously and uniformly followed for a long time.Indian Courts recognize three types of customs viz (a) Local custom these are customs recognised by Courts to have been prevalent in a particular region or locality. (b) Class custom these are customs which are acted upon by a particular class. Eg. There is a custom among a class of Vaishyas to the effect that desertion or abandonment of the wife by the husband abrogates the marriage and the wife is free to marry again during the life-time of the husband. (c) Family custom these are customs which are binding upon the members of a family. Eg. There is a custom in families of ancient India that the eldest male member of the family shall inherit the estates.Modern SourcesJustice, equity and good conscience-Occasionally it might happen that a dispute comes before a Court which cannot be settled by the application of any existing rule in any of the sources available. Such a situation may be rare but it is possible because not every kind of point situation which arises can have a corresponding law governing it.The Courts cannot refuse to the settle the dispute in the absence of law and they are under an obligation to decide such a case also. For determining such cases, the Courts rely upon the basic values, norms and standards of fairplay and propriety.In terminology, this is known as principles of justice, equity and good conscience. They may also be termed as Natural law. This principle in our country has enjoyed the status of a source of law since the 18th century when the British constitution made it clear that in the absence of a rule, the above principle shall be applied.Legislations-Legislations are Acts of Parliament which have been playing a profound use in the formation of Hindu law. After India achieved independence, some important aspects of Hindu Law have been codified. Few examples of important Statutes are The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, etc.After codification, any point dealt with by the codified law is final. The enactment overrides all prior law, whether based on custom or otherwise unless an express saving is provided for in the enactment itself. In matters not specifically covered by the codified law, the old textual law contains to have application.Precedents-After the establishment of British rule, the hierarchy of Courts was established. The doctrine of precedent based on the principle of treating ilk cases alike was established. Today, the decisions of Privy Council are binding on all the lower Courts in India except where they have been modified or altered by the compulsory Court whose decisions are binding on all the Courts except for itself.A Critique on the SourcesIt is significant to note that the term Hindu is not defined anywhere in terms of religion or in any statute or judicial decisions. For the purpose of determining to whom Hindu Law applies, it is demand to know who is a Hindu and none of the sources expressly state so. At most from statutes, we can get a negative definition of a Hindu which states that Hindu law shall apply to those who are not Muslim, Christian, Parsi, Jew, etc. and who are not governed by any other law.Hindu Law is considered to be reverent law as it is strongly believed that the sages had attained some spiritual dominion and they could communicate directly with God form whom we get the divine law. But this is only an assumption and no concrete proof for the same is shown that the sages could communicate with God (whose very existence is challenged by atheists). Due to this, galore(postnominal) communities are also pain from the misapprehension or delusion that their forefathers and messiahs had revelations from God.Justice A.M.Bhattacharjee strongly states that harmonize to him he cannot think that even a staunch believer in any divine existence, transcendent or immanent, can believe in the divine origin of Hindu law, unless he has a motive behind such profession of printing or has not read the Smritis or is ready to believe anything and everything with slavish infidelity.According to Justice Markandey Katju, Hindu law does not originate from the Vedas (also called Shruti). He vehemently asserts that there are many who propound that Hindu law originated from the Shrutis but this is a fiction and in fact Hindu law originated from the Smriti books which contained writings from Sanskrit scholars in ancient time who had specialized in law.The Shrutis hardly c onsist of any law and the writings ordained in the Smriti do not make any clear-cut distinction between rules of law and rules of morality or religion. In most of the manuscripts, the ethical, moral and legal principles are woven into one. It is perhaps for this reason that according to Hindu tradition, law did not mean only in the Austinian sense of jurisprudence and is objectionable to it and the word used in place of law was the Sanskrit word dharma which connotes religion as well as duty.Although Dharmasutras dealt with law, they did not provide an anthology of law dealing with all the branches of law. The Manusmriti supplied a much needed legal exposition which could be a compendium of law. But according to Kane, It is almost impossible to say who composed the Manusmriti. The very existence of Manu is regarded to be a myth by many and he is termed as a mythological character.Many critics assert that the word Smriti itself means that what is remembered and therefore the validity or proof of the existing Smritis could be challenged. It cannot be said for certainty that what the sages remembered was actually what was propounded.Hindu law has generally been critiqued on the grounds that the Smritis and other customs were generally extremely orthodox and against the favours of women. Hindu society thus has always been a patriarchal society and women have always received sub collectd importance over men. Some also disapprove of the notions of caste-based system created by ancient Hindu law from which emerged the ill-perceived practices of untouchability, etc.The Smritis are admitted to possess independent authority but while their authority is beyond dispute, their meanings are rough to various interpretations and has been and is the subject of much dispute. Till date, no one can say for sure the exact amount of Smritis which exist under Hindu law. It is due to the abovementioned problems that the digest and commentaries were established and various schools of Hindu law started to give birth.The modern sources of Hindu law such as Justice, equity and good conscience have been critiqued on the grounds that it paves the way for personal opinions and beliefs of judges to be made into law. We have seen catena of cases where the decisions of the Court have been criticised for want of proper reasoning. This also signifies the incompleteness of the laws which exist.The lordly Court in most matters has ascertained the rules of Hindu law successfully but there are couple of cases where they have interpreted the rules in their own light. One of the gravest cases of the Supreme Court which deserves much criticism is the case of Krishna Singh v. Mathura Ahir. The Allahabad High Court had rightly held that the discriminatory ban imposed on the Sudras by the Smritis stands abrogated as it contravenes the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Constitution.However, the Supreme Court contradicted the above view and held that Part III of the Constitution does not touch upon the personal laws of the parties. In applying the personal laws of the parties one cannot introduce his own concepts of modern times but should enforce the law as derived from recognised and authoritative sources of Hindu law.except where such law is altered by any usage or custom or is modified or abrogated by statute.It can be submitted with ease that the above view is contrary to all Constitutional theories and is expressly in contradiction with Article 13. It is shocking to note that this judgment is yet to be over-ruled in express terms.Since the aegis of time, Hindu law has been reformed and modified to some extent through legislations but these reforms have been half-hearted and fragmentary. The problem with fragmentary reforms is that though reforms were made to change some aspects, their implications on other aspects were over- musical noteed. For example, the Hindu Womens Right to Property Act, 1937, was passed with a view to granting property rights to women but its repercussions on the law of joint family was over-looked. The result was that fragmentary reforms through legislations solved some problems but resulted in others.Many people make the mistake of considering various text books written by erudite scholars as sources of Hindu law. This is because the Courts have firm many cases relying on these text books and quoted them for reference. For example, Mullas Hindu Law has been quoted by many judges. In Bishundeo v. Seogani Rai, Justice Bose giving the majority judgment stated that The rule laid down in Mullas book is expressly stated to be in cases where the position is not effected by a decree of a competent Court. The same has been the case with many other text books. It should be made clear that text books are not sources of Hindu law and the authors have no authority to lay down the law.ConclusionIt has been seen that Hindu law has been critiqued for its orthodoxy, patriarchal character and does not bear a very modern outlook of society. There are many areas where the Hindu law needs to upgrade itself, for example, the irretrievable breakdown theory as a valid ground for divorce is shut away not recognised under the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and even the of Supreme Court have expressed their foreboding on this.The most valid concern is that the very definition of a Hindu is still not given in any of the sources. Statutes give only a negative definition which does not suffice the test of time. The very proponent that Hindu law is divine law has been challenged by scholars and atheists.There are many Smritis which are yet to be found according to Historians and many conflicts of opinions and interpretations have arisen for the existing ones, thus creating a window of ambiguity under Hindu law. There are also several areas where Hindu law is silent.Most of the ancient sources of Hindu law is written in Sanskrit and it is well known that in the present times there is a dearth of Sanskrit scholars. There is hardly any importance left of the ancient sources since the time the modern sources have emerged and been followed.It can be said that proper codification of Hindu law without room for ambiguity is the need of the hour. It can be said that where the present sources of Hindu law are uninviting the Legislature could look into sources and customs of other religions and incorporate them into Hindu law if it caters to the need of the society and meets the test of time.

Human Memory How reliable is Eyewitness Testimony

Human Memory How reliable is Eye detect recommendationThis essays attempts to r all(prenominal) a conclusion regarding eye find oneself testimonies and the extent of its reliability. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. The acquisition stage is the preconditioninus where the run into regards the matter. The retention stage is the period between the time the gist ends and the time the get word argon asked for a recount or questioned about the event. The retrieval stage is the period where the witness is providing breeding from their recall.During the acquisition stage, look for regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event (for example, time), violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress was analysed. During the retention stage, look regarding back-event entropy, intromission of conflicting cultivation and introduction of misleading entropy was analysed. During the retrieval stage, research regarding order of challenge, leading questions and a depicted object study of an actual event was analysed.Experiments and case studies regarding these factors were then evaluated to fight the impact that it had on eyewitness testimony. In conclusion, it was entrap that tastes regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability solely on that point atomic number 18 also some findings that dispute this. Thus, it was cerebrate that it is reliable scarce to a small extent though it base be highly accu regularize under(a) certain conditions. Applications of this conclusion includes jurors being to a greater extent aware of the factors regarding eyewitness testimony and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts.Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account get outn by an individual who has undergo an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capabi lity of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded payable to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence idler be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible computer storage which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this maintain by identifying and evaluating factors that claim memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has become an issue of greatness due to the high per centumage of errors in identifying and prosecuting accused individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials should be reviewed.Memory is defined as a salmagundi of repository in which fact s ( nurture) may be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage (1971), memory is do up of three different suits of information stores, each with different duration, capacity and function. The number 1 is Sensory Memory. This type of store lasts for the spilt second when individuals collect information from their stunning systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are limited in their ability to store information about the domain in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for boost memory processing into the next type of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is Short-term memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be used and lasts some between 15 to 30 seconds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that Short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are carried out, the information impart be transferred to the last type of memory store, Long-term Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is constantly being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is taken from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval.Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may not halt been perceived in the first place, information may be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. abridgment o f Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition ProcessDuring the acquisition process, there are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event such as exposure time or stress. This can be split into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay testament evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony.Exposure time to the event or disapprove of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tested subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, showed one at a time of different positions of a human face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hairs-breadth and complexion with glasses and another with a darker-colored hair and complexion without glasses. The independent variable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty-two seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately e ight minutes afterward exposure to identify the target within a series of 150 slides of human faces. The dependant variable is the accuracy of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight pctof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds correctly identified the target but only forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is markingificant as it is very scientific and precisely tested a specific variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial milieu and thus, has low ecological validity. The research may also contain cultural and sexual practice bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable.Estimating factors such as time, further or distance is ofte n asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects estimation of time. Four atomic number 6 and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had given their written and oral reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On just, subjects gave an label of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a realistic situation by staging an attack where a student attacked a professor in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that there is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action.Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive violent and non-violent events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched each one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were involved in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the start and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was erect that regardless of gender, the direct of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater sum of money of stress that is produced in resolution to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a higher rate of inaccuracy. though the results are significant due to the high reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not rattling experience the event.An event factor that is linked to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) free-base that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a we apon. This rises the stress take of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have anesthetize recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a fast pabulum restaurant. Half the subjects saw a node pointing a gun at the cashier while the other half(a), the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the level of accuracy of the weapon group was fifty-six percent while the level of accuracy for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriousl y hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity.During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a rally link. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were essential to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance o f the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different honorable standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which there is a decrement. This can be apply to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity.Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention ProcessEye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the many researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur.After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to tally at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. All other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered defineing a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a specific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might b e compromised.A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to resoluteness a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the draw of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The vital question was How many demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve r eported an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information.Similar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident af ter which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be modified by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experience the incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively a ffect their account.McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides depicting an event, participants received a muniment of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The sarcastic question concerning the tool had the original item as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and seventy-two percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment supports the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity.Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval ProcessMost evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the proficiencys of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on the reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory.The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a murder in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high.Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the spoken communication smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, pContending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palme rs (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not alter in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event that was comparatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one c ase study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies.ConclusionThis essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated.Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlation of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliabilit y of eyewitness testimony. Overall abbreviation criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process. This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors like, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability.As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable onl y to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate.Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being more wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay.ReferencesAtkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Shor t-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford UniversityEasterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of Emotion on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the History of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca http//psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/ police/Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, New York, Oxford University PressLoftus, E. F Loftus, G. R Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of WashingtonLoftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University PressYullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, Journal of utilize Psychology, Volume 71(2), May 1986, 291-301Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc.Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Tension and Conflict in Mending Wall :: Mending Wall Essays

Tension and Conflict in Mending Wall The conflict in Mending Wall develops as the verbaliser reveals more and more of himself while portraying a native Yankee and responding to the regional spirit he embodies. The opposition between observer and observed--and the tension produced by the observers awareness of the difference--is crucial to the poem. Ultimately, the very knowledge of this opposition becomes itself a kind of barrier behind which the persona, for all his dislike of walls, finds himself confined. But at the beginning, the Yankee sodbuster is not present, and the persona introduces himself in a reflective, offhanded way, musing about walls Something there is that doesnt pick out a wall, That sends the frozen-ground-swell under it And spills the upper boulders in the sun, And makes gaps tear down ii can pass abreast. Clearly, he is a casual sort. He broaches no difficult subjects, nor does he insist on talking about himself yet halt is at his best in a sentence like t his. Through the language and rhythm of the lines we gain a faint but unmistakable mother wit of the poems conflict. Like the frozen-ground-swell, it gathers strength while lying buried beneath the denotative surface of the poem. From the start, we suspect that the speaker has more sympathy than he admits for whatever it is that doesnt love a wall. Frost establishes at the outset his speakers discursive in filmion. He combines the indefinite pronoun something with the loose expletive construction there is to evoke a ruminative vagueness even before raising the central subject of walls. A more straightforward character (like the Yankee farmer) might condense this opening line to three direct words Something dislikes walls. But Frost employs informal, indulgently convoluted language to provide a linguistic texture for the dramatic conflict that develops later in the poem. By using syntactical inversion (something there is . . .) to introduce a rambling, undisciplined series of relati ve clauses and compound verb phrases (that doesnt love . . . that sends . . . and spills . . . and makes . . .), he evinces his personas unorthodox, unrestrained imagination. Not entirely does this speaker believe in a strange force, a seemingly intelligent, natural or supernatural something that sends the frozen-ground-swell to ravage the wall, but his speech is also aerated with a deep sensitivity to it. The three active verbs (sends, spills, makes) that impel the second, third, and fourth lines forward are completed by direct objects that suggest his close poster of the destructive process.

RIM is Done Essay -- Business, Technology

Research In Motion (RIM) is a Canadian multinational telecommunications company headquartered in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, that designs, manufactures and markets wireless solutions for the worldwide sprightly and tele-communications market. They are mostly known for making the BlackBerry brand. When the BlackBerry was invented during the early 2000s it was a huge hit. When 2011 came along, things starting to go downhill for RIM. Over the itinerary of the year, they have lost more than 75% of their stock value. This caused a decline in investors confidence. However, they would have to deal with competition from orchard apple tree, faulty devices like Playbook sullen consumers off, and frequent job cuts. If these points do not get dealt within the next 5 years they will declare bankruptcy and will cause a major impact in the cellphone industry.Competition from Apple is taking away potential sales from RIM. However, it is one of the few problems they mustiness deal with in order fo r them stay in business. Apple is just one of the few competitors for RIM. On October 12th, Apple released the new iMessage and its new iPhone 4S and while that was happening, RIM was facing a worldwide outage that affected millions of people. People that were using the BlackBerry were sick, and tried having to deal with frequent outages, and decided to switch to the iPhone. That is another reason why competitors like Apple are doing a lot better because of selection. Rims phones are out-dated compared to those other firms. Consumers have more choices today, and in many cases, the alternatives are superior. The BlackBerry has a single-core chip inside with a 640x480 screen, compared to the Apple, which has two-cores and 640x960 screens. On March 11th 2011, Apple release... ...ada CBC News, December 15, 2011 RIM looking anemic Revenues down, more job cuts on the way, PlayBook sales negligible, September 15, 2011 RIM stocks drop 23 per cent after BlackBerry maker reports poor Q2 performance Global News, September 16, 2011 RIM timeline theSpec.com, January 23, 2012 liquid ecstasy Amazon weighed buying RIM, interest cooled Yahoo Finance, January 12, 2012 Is Lazaridis/Balsillie exit enough to save RIM? Yahoo Finance, January 23, 2012 Rims Chances For A Successful 2012 About cypher BYTE, January 03, 2012 Rims Chances For A Successful 2012 About Zero BYTE, January 03, 2012 RIM stock declines 8.4% following CEO step-down Fudzilla, January 23, 2012 Ten things RIMs new CEO must do right away CNET News, January 23, 2012 Microsoft, Nokia Reportedly Considering Rim Buyout HotHardware, January 12, 2012