Research Papaer Essay

The terms jejuneness, teen progressr, adolescentr, and newborn hoi polloi atomic procedure 18 each(prenominal) apply to describe mountain in the kind of life that marks the conversion from squirthood to maturity date. While there is common agreement on the transition from chelahood to adolescence, when exactly adolescence ends and large(p)hood begins is little clear as the floor of adolescence is culture-specific and therefore diametrical in each society. In m some(prenominal) cultures, the transition from jejuner to adult could be real short, while, in other cultures it could be longer (Govindasamy et al. 2002). The World Health ecesis (WHO, 2009) defines adolescents as people aged 10-19 y issueh as those aged amid 15-24 and young people as those aged between 10 and 24 historic period old and juveniler as people aged 13-19 geezerhood. Traore (2010) agrees that age has been used to differentiate adolescents from adolescents establish on their physical deve lopment. This study, however, prefer to issue females in the age group between 13 to 19 years as juvenilers. In this study, the term juvenilers was used by means ofout. The relative incidence of jejune gestation period remains mel natural effect around the world. consort to Nanda (2006), jejune females give kindred to 15 million infants every year. Thus, immature maternal quality is a link up from both a human rights and a humans health perspective. teend gestation period and its effect on teenage beginhood ar among the study(ip) societal capers confronting the contemporary global conjunction (Gatara & Muriuki, 2005). In Ghana, for example, unrivaled business relationship estimates that n archeozoic unmatched-third of the child owns recorded in public hospitals occurred to women under 19 years of age (Xinhua, 2006).The prevalence is graduate(prenominal)er in the rural aras and small- to-medium-sized towns which are much under-represented in the hospital kind statistics. A survey conducted by the UN Regional Institute for Population Studies describe that oneness out of troika girls aged 15 to 19 living in Ghanas Central Region has had a child (Xinhua, 2006). Similar prevalence of teenage pregnancies stir been described for other African countries (Mwansa et aI. , 2004). One study in Swaziland plunge that females aged 15-19 years accounted for 32. per cent of the bring rankness (Gule, 2005). other study reported that females in the same age group contributed 103 bring forths per thou women in the Kenya (Gatara Muriuki, 2005). It has been estimated that at least one out of twenty girls is likely to give birth during the coach-going age. Data for Botswana also show that by 2004, about(predicate) 25 percent of girls 15-19 years old were already mothers (Curtis, 2008). Two years after, in 2006, 56 per cent of the girls had layped out of secondary directs in the terra firma due to motherliness (Mashalaba, 2009).On ex plaining the agents that contribute to teenage motherliness, (Anderson, 2001) found that in poor neighbourhoods, teenagers experience less control over many aspects of their lives than the non-poor.. Anderson (2001) has move on reported that some impoverished teenage girls consider childbirth as a rare ascendent of self-esteem, or a sign of increase up, while fireual conquest brings a feeling of accomplishment to some teenage boys to whom legitimate opportunities whitethorn be blocked (Farley, 2005). The discussion of teenage motherliness and childbirth therefore, tends to characterise the problem as mainly a feature of the poor segment of society.Besides, a publications brush up (Lewis, 2006 2009) shows that aside poverty, factors such as early exposure to familiar practise, lack of gender educational activity, weak resurrectal control and supervision, coadjutor pressure, impoverished self-esteem and the take on for self-fulfillment are associated with teenage mo therliness. It is in light of these factors that this study seeks to appreciate the factors that influence teenage gestation and their effect in the Sunyani Municipality in ready to attend policy makers traverse the problem. 1. 2 Problem Statement teenaged pregnancy has long been a worldwide genial and educational push for the developed, developing and underdeveloped countries. Many countries continue to experience eminent incidence of teenage pregnancy despite the intervention strategies that get hold of been put in place. In 2000 approximately 530,000 teenagers in the United States became enceinte, out of which 51% gave birth (Coley Chase-Lansdale, 2008). Available literature suggests that in Africa, the total fertility rate has declined to an acquire of 2. 9 children per woman (Dickson, 2002).A decline in fertility grade has been associated with a high-pitched use of contraceptives among women and also the legalisation of abortion in most African countries (Swartz , 2002). Despite the decline in the total fertility rate, teenage pregnancy has been found to be significantly high (Dickson, 2002). The high prevalence of teenage pregnancy in societies characterised by poverty, pitiable education, less job opportunities and families headed by mothers who gave birth to their first children in adolescence (Dryfoos, 2006 Macleod, 2009). jejune pregnancy is also associated with other problematic demeanors such as alcohol and medicine use, and early initiation of inner activity, which prevail been identified as predictors of pregnancy (Coley Chase-Lansdale, 2008). Plant and Plant (2002) argue that hazard or problem behaviour is associated with amicable disadvantage, poverty, homelessness, unemployment, bad housing, fragmented family structure and stressful life events. The youth emulate the behaviour of their parents and of their society, frankincense social and cultural factors influence patterns of peril taking (Plant Plant, 2002).The hi gh incidence of teenage pregnancy has become a major societal and educational concern, as it seems to perpetuate poverty and low levels of education (Furstenberg et al. , 2007 Morgan, 2007). Also due to changing social circumstances and value, teenage pregnancy is a tolerated phenomenon in modern Ghanaian society. Social margin towards sex outside uniting, and absence of serious social repercussions like isolation or exclusion following an out of wedlock birth, contribute to the high rate of teenage pregnancy (Parekh De La Rey, 2007).It has also been argued by Preston-Whyte and Zondi (2002) that the high value lay on fertility and education encourages adolescent girls to aim for both motherhood and academician qualifications. The high cultural value placed on education and fertility is seen as a contributive factor to the prevalence of teenage pregnancy (Preston-Whyte Zondi, 2002). Education and the link employment prospects enhances the possibility of improved quality of l ife and thus whitethorn be one of the factors that encourage adolescent to continue with school after(prenominal)ward child birth (Kaufman et al. , 2001).Even though pregnant teenagers may not officially be prevented from remaining at school, realistically, due to the demands of parenting, they may be forced to drop out of school, for example, in instances where there is no one to look after the child while the teenage mother continues with her schooling. sometimes the pregnant teenager feels isolated from her accomplices. She may be embarrassed by her condition and control difficulty fitting in with her non-pregnant peers and as a result may drop out of school. Parenting teenagers a great deal adopt to deal with strained family relationships. slightlytimes parents react with anger to the pregnant teenagers.She may be blamed or ostracised for causing a problem (Cervera, 2004). Consequently, she may not set forth commission and concomitant from her family members forcing her to drop out of school in baffle to mount her child. Based on the aforementioned problems and its effect on the teenager, child, family and the society, this study seeks to assess the factors that influence teenage pregnancy and their do in the Sunyani Municipality in format to help policy makers address the problem. It has been established that there has not been any similar study concerning teenage pregnancy and their cause on teenagers at the Sunyani Zongo community.Although there have been countless cases of teenage pregnancy in the community depriving make believeed teenagers from furthering their basic education. The aged in the community based on interaction with the inquiryer revealed that people come to the community to seek the support of the residents in response to their questionnaires, their projects aimed at other relevant community worryd problems but none of them is concentrate on teenage pregnancy. 1. 3 apology of the Study Little attention has been gi ven to mental variables and processes that predict the natural event of teenage pregnancy (Coley Chase-Lansdale, 2008).Most literature focuses on social factors, which incline teenagers to falling pregnant. pregnancy may cause psychological distress, as it is a lot associated with dropping out of school, either in the lead or shortly after childbirth (Zondi, 2002). Teenage mothers are more(prenominal) likely to present with symptoms of depression when compared with their non-parenting peers and older mothers (Kalil Kunz, 2000). The transition to motherhood puts teenagers at a great risk for psychological distress because they are socially, cognitively and steamyly immature to contest with the demands of motherhood.This study examines the experiences of pregnant learners, both in a scholastic and private context. It assesses how these learners are affected by the demands of coexisting motherhood and adolescence. There appears to be little look into done on how Ghanaian pregnant adolescent learners perceive their situation and how they cope with the demands of adolescence and of motherhood. The results haggard from the study would hammer a basis for further research on the psychological set up of pregnancy during teenagers and may also be of value to designing intervention strategies. 1. 4 Research ObjectivesThe study focused on the following objectives. 1. 5 commonplace Objective To assess the factors that influence teenage pregnancy and their effects in the Sunyani Municipality (SM) in order to recommend policy actions for policy makers. 1. 5. 1 precise objectives This study intended To assess the influence of socio- frugal status on teenage pregnancy To identify the effect of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy and To examine mass media exposure and its effect on teenage pregnancy. To assess the effects of teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality. To make recommendations based on the findings of the study. . 5 Research Questions Based on the specific objectives of the study, the research seeks answers to the following questions What is the influence and effects of socio-economic status on teenage pregnancy in the SM? What are the influences and effects of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy in the SM? How does the mass media exposure encroachment on teenage pregnancy? What are the consequences of teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality? 1. 6 Significance of the Study The outcome of this study bequeath let useful information about the psychological well- universe of pregnant teenagers.This will assist mental health professionals in developing appropriate psycho-educational programmes to address the psychosocial scraps associated with teenage pregnancy and motherhood. Furthermore, the findings of the study will help to inform public debate that could lead to the development of appropriate policies on how to deal with the challenge of teenage pregnancy and motherhood. Also victims of teenage pregnancy will get the opportunity to disclose information about their experiences in order to help in their addressing problems.Considering the nature of this study, including student affairs professionals, counsellors or psychologists, and those interested in womans issues would be assisted to identify the factors associated with teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality and their effects on the teenager, the child and the society. Future detectives, who would study into determinants of teenage pregnancy in the Municipality, would also have a complement or a basis for their literature review. Finally, the research is likely to raise questions atomic number 82 to further research. 1. 7 Scope of the StudyFor feasibility purposes, the study focused on how socio-economic status peer pressure and early exposure to sexual activity by the mass media influence teenage pregnancy and their effects on the teenager, child and the society. The study considered school going teenagers who dropped out of school due to teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality. In the study, a pregnant teenager was pregnant girl aged 13 to 19 years. Besides, psychological effects in this study referred to the presence of symptoms cerebrate to somatic complaints, trouble and insomnia, social isolation, and depression.The current study focused on pregnant teenagers who were drawn from the Sunyani Municipality who attended antenatal clinic (ANC) at the Sunyani Municipal Hospital (SMH) during the period of data collection. 1. 7 Delimitation Even though the study was carried out in Sunyani Municipality, concentration was on teenagers at Sunyani Zongo community considering the fact that they have gamble in the topic understudy. This research was conducted within the following parameters the influence and effects of socio-economic status on teenage pregnancy he influence and effects of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy the influence and effects of mass media exposure on teenage pregnancy the conseq uences of teenage pregnancy on teenagers. 1. 8 Organisation of the Chapters The research is in five different chapters. In the first chapter, an insight is given as to what the study is all about with the statement of research problem, research questions and objectives, import of the study, limitations of the study, and the organization of the essay. In the second chapter, an overview of relevant materials advertd to the study is discussed.In the third chapter, the researcher presents the methodology used in the study chapter 4 will focus on the presentation and analysis of data, and the final chapter will look at the conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Introduction This chapter reviewed several selected studies which relate to the topic. The chapter focused on literature related to socio-economic status and teenage pregnancy peer pressure and teenage pregnancy, mass media exposure and teenage pregnancy as well as the effects of teenage pregnancy 2. 2 Socio-economic status and Teenage PregnancyIt has been revealed that teenage pregnancy is often associated with low socio-economic status ( Dryfoos, 2006). Economically disadvantaged teenagers are characterised by low levels of education and lack of employment opportunities (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002). Certain family characteristics have also been identified as factors that put teenagers at risk of becoming pregnant in early life. Factors such as poverty, single parent families especially the female headed households, disadvantageously educated parents have been associated with teenage pregnancy (Furstenberg et al. , 2007).Teenagers from one-parent headed families are apt to post from deprivations that may lead them to seek affection, security and a sense of significance elsewhere (Chillman, 2006). There are two contrasting views on the study of single parenting. In some sources it is argued that most parenting adolescents have been found to come from impoverished single par ent families, which are often headed by a female (Swartz, 2002). In the other source, children raised in single parent families are more likely to have been victims of an unstable family purlieu, have see a divorce or parental passage of arms (Russell, 2004).Negative family environment plays a major role in contributing to early teenage sexual experience and teenage pregnancy (Cunningham & Boult, 2002 Macleod, 2009). A familys low economic status with all the factors associated with it, impacts negatively on teenagers attitudes towards early pregnancy. behavior experiences associated with poverty minimise the perceived repercussions of adolescent pregnancy (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002). Andorka (2008) verbalize that people with higher income show lower fertility levels at the earlier stage of socioeconomic development than people with lower income.Other basics of economic conditions such as economic security also seem to have a significant influence on teenage pregnancy (Andork a, 2008). A study by Kamal (2009) showed that a significant negative relation was found between teenage motherhood and the wealth index. About three out of four women with a poor wealth index captureed childbearing before they reached the age of nineteen. Choe et al. (2001) showed that womans education was significantly related to the hazard of child bearing before the age of 20.The results of a study by Were (2007) also showed that teenage pregnancies were perpetuated by poor educational entre as women with low levels of education tended to be the victims of teenage birth. Because educated woman were more likely to enrol in the labour force than their uneducated or lower educated counterparts, women who were working also tended to delay their first marriage and first birth compared with those women who were not working. In Ghana, Bogue (2009) argue that education showed a stronger and more consistent relationship with teenage pregnancy.The level of education of women is a socio economic indicator which is frequently found to be negatively related to teenage pregnancy. This is because educated women tend to marry and use contraception later compared to women who have a low level of education (Bongaarts, 2008). Furthermore, Cochrane (2009) also stated that education was positively related to more favourable attitudes toward birth control, greater cognition of contraception, and husband-wife communication. Thus, concerning the context of the study, it assumes that the level of educational attainment of women may affect the timing of childbearing among women. . 3 Peer Pressure and Teenage Pregnancy Preston-Whyte & Zondi (2002) found that schoolmates exerted a dowry of pressure on their peers to engage in sexual relations. around studies have found that teenagers often cite their peers as being of strong influence on their sexual behaviour (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002 Chillman, 2006). Teenagers get for approval and a desire to belong to a group makes them e ndangered to peer influence thereby leading to them to teenage pregnancy (Kamal, 2009). present tense teenagers preferred position is to stay away from their parents, to avoid to be controlled by parents.They rather listen to their peers than to their parents. Bezuidenhout (2002) said that during that time norms and values taught by parents start to fade out and are replaced by liberal sexual values orientated by peers. Preston-Whyte and Zondi (2002) mentioned that peer pressure plays a role in teenage pregnancy. Buga et al. (2006) found that 20% of girls and 10% of boys respectively indicated that they had initiated sexual activity because of peer pressure. Wood et al. (2006) said peer pressure takes a form of exclusionary put ons (e. g. sending sexually inexperienced teenagers away when having discussions concerning sexual matters).Again Mfono (2008) indicated that one of the dynamics operative in sexual relations is that girls and young women are under pressure to demonstrate t hat they are sexually capable of natural endowment birth. Furthermore, Rozakis (2003) believed that many teens are pushed by their friends into doing something they are not ready for, and in truth do not understand that peer pressure can be a very strong and persuasive force for sexual relations during adolescence. Peer association has been indicated as one of the strongest predictors of adolescent sexual behaviour and teenage pregnancy (DiBlasio & Benda, 2004).Youth that do not engage in sex tend to have friends who also abstain. Those that are sexually mobile tend to believe that their friends are sexually active as well. Males, particularly those over 16, report more pressure from peers to be sexually active while females report more pressure from partners (Guggino & Ponzetti, 2007). Moore and Rosenthal (2003) pointed to the following ways peer influence can operate Through sharing of information, which can armed service as a guide in decision-making about sex (this may inc lude inaccurate information).Through prevailing attitudes about sexuality (implicitly reflected in their behaviour and serving as a role model or explicitly stated in discussions etc. ). For example, there is some research evidence that the age of first intercourse is related to the perceived peer approval of premarital intercourse (Daugherty & Burger, 2004). 2. 4 Mass media exposure and Teenage Pregnancy Lucas (2004) stated that the age at first marriage is the one of the determinants of fertility and is classed as the intercourse variable. Early entry into marriage or a union is considered to be strongly connected with early child bearing.The supposition is that it will expose women to regular sexual intercourse through the mass media, and therefore increase the possibility of conception (Mahy & Gupta, 2002). Gupta and Leite (2009) stated that access to the media was found to be the most significant predictor of fertility among young adult women in Brazil based on an analysis of D HS data. In this region, the mass media are believed to play an great role in promoting social attitudes about fertility and reproductive behaviours, especially given the countrys linguistic homogeneity (Gupta & Leite, 2009).It can be assumed that women who are used to being exposed to mass media are likely to understand the risks of teenage motherhood, and, as a result, they tend to delay their pregnancies. It is clear from different sources that the media often plays a major role in influencing teenage pregnancy. Parents can simply consistently monitor what programmes their teenagers are watching. Rozakis (2003) believed that picture is the main source of sexual socialization in many teenagers lives in the USA.According to A Rozakis (2003), in a single year there were 20, 000 sexual messages on television used to sell almost anything you can imagine cars, travel, soft drinks, toothpaste, and clothing. television set also shows six times more extramarital sex than sex between hu sbands and wives. During the absence of any elderly person children become bored and want to experiment with many things including exploring TV channels as source of entertainment. Devenish et al. (2002) agreed that the media also portray sex as fun and exciting.Bezuidenhout (2004) added that sexually arousing material, whether it is on film, in print or set to music, is freely gettable to the teenager and such information is often presented out of the context of the appointive sexual norms of that society. Schultz (2004), in his empirical study, suggested that sex educators, social workers, other lot professionals, and parents should work together to counteract distortions that affect adolescents sexual development and sexual growth, and professionals and parents need to recognize the reality and power of the media as an influence on sexual growth.All of the above can influence teenagers behaviour and encourage them to experiment with sex which will lead to unsuitable teenage p regnancies (Schultz, 2004). Similarly, Moore and Rosenthal (2003) pointed out that television, films and other forms of media have removed a lot of the mystery surrounding sex by increasingly explicit impersonation of sexual acts, which can provide a model of sexual behaviour. The unimaginative portrayals often do not provide positive role models with voluptuous values rather than responsibility being promoted (e. g. planning for sex being rarely included) (Moore, 2000).According to McCabe (20055), the medias message is that teenagers should be sexually experienced. 2. 5 Effects of Teenage Pregnancy Teenage pregnancy has been associated with a number of negative effects, hence it is perceived as a social problem (Furstenberg et al. , 2007 Macleod, 2009). In medical literature it has been associated with obstetrics problems such as high infant and maternal mortality, risks of clandestine abortion, delivery complications and low infant birth weight (Dickson, 2002). Other complicatio ns for the teenage mother are limited educational opportunities, self-determination and a poor quality of life (Prater, 2002).At the broader social level the high teenage fertility rate has been found to have a negative effect on the economic development (Varga, 2003). Some young mothers do not get support from their families. They may be declineed by their families and blamed for introducing a permanent crisis (Hudson & Ineichen, 2001 Cervera, 2004). In a situation where there was a pre-existing interpersonal problem, there is a authorization that tension might be orchestrated (Dryfoos, 2006). Therefore conflict may arise between the pregnant daughter and other members of the family.Some sources have reported positive results, indicating that sometimes a family reorganises itself in order to adjust to the new member of the family (Cervera, 2004). The family may react with dismay or anger when they discover about the pregnancy, but when the baby is born the family may become the s ource of support for the mother (Moore, 2000). Positive family support has been associated with emotional qualifying and mental stability for both mother and child (Camerana et al. , 2008). According to Kalil and Kunz (20088) young mothers who lived with a supportive family tended to cope better.In the Ghanaian context, a child of an unmarried mother belongs to its mothers family (Burman, 2002). It is very unlikely that her family will reject a teenage mother (Kaufman et al. , 2001). Most communities no longer practice acts of exclusion to the unmarried mother and her child (Parekh & De La Rey, 2007). In her review of South African studies on teenage pregnancy, Macleod (20099) stated that teenage mothers reported a perceived improvement in the relationship with their parents. Parents were reported to relate to teenage mothers as adults. Thus parenthood gave the teenage mothers an entry to adulthood (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002).Prater (2002) stated that teenage pregnancy and subseq uent parenting could create major obstacles to any learners achievements at school. Thus, pregnant learners are stricken by their situation. Even though they have as much potential for academic success as their non-parenting cohorts, there are multidimensional causes for their academic failure. Many investigations have shown that early pregnancy hinders educational attainment. Erikson (2004) reported that teenage mothers exhibited a syndrome of failure, which included a failure to remain in school. Pregnant learners are more likely to drop out of school for at least an academic year.The dual role of being a mother and a learner is stressful (Parekh & De La Rey, 2007) and impinges on school achievement. School attendance, is also disturbed by such things as baby sitting arrangements and the health of the child. Furstenberg et al. (2007) referred to what is termed role rob. He defined role overload as the strain that exists when the teenage mother simultaneously attempts to meet th e demands of parenting and schooling. Parenting learners cannot participate in experiences enjoyed by their peers, for example, extra-curricular activities, which can add much value to the total school experience of most teenagers.Despite these hardships schooling emerged as important (Prater, 2002). Depression has been correlated with teenage pregnancy (Hamburg, 2006). Parenting teenagers are more likely to present with higher levels of depression when compared with non-parenting adolescents and older mothers. In most literature psychological distress among adolescent mothers is perceived as resulting from psychosocial stressors related to the adjustment into the role of being the mother (Kalil & Kunz, 2000). In some literature it is argued that teenage girls are predisposed to depression (Galambos, 2004).It is postulated that teenage girls are more wedded to experiencing mothers of the same ethnic and socio-economic status had similar findings (Field et al. , 2006 Hudson & Ineich en, 2001). It was found that infants of teenage mothers are more likely to converge less verbal stimulation and to have developmental delays. These negative effects were associated with the fact that teenage mothers had limited knowledge of developmental milestones and held punitive child rearing attitudes. Literature concludes that teenage mothering is contributory to poor cognitive development of the child.Low education levels of the mother, poor socioeconomic status and negative attitudes towards child rearing are correlated with the childs poor developmental outcome (Field et al. , 2006). Cunningham and Boult (2006) also postulated that the young mothers immaturity, social inexperience and lack of child rearing skills have a negative effect on the child. The young mother and her off-spring are at a risk of becoming victims of crime like incest, rape, neglect, abuse, family force-out and of participation in criminal activities such as drug trafficking, whoredom etc.In the Ghana ian context the teenage mother often resides in her parental home (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002) and the child is often in the financial aid of an adult during the day either the grandmother or at an choice day care. This implies that the child of a teenager is more than likely to receive parenting from an adult mother figure and to benefit from this interaction (Camerana et al. , 2008). Multiple care giving has also been found to be of benefit for the mother. While an adult is looking after the child, the mother gets the opportunity to attend to other responsibilities thus alleviating the stressors for the mother.